BCAA metabolism in pancreatic cancer affects lipid balance by regulating fatty acid import into mitochondria.

BACKGROUND: Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) has been associated with the host dysmetabolism of branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs), however, the implications for the role of BCAA metabolism in PDAC development or progression are not clear. The mitochondrial catabolism of valine, leucine, and isoleucine is a multistep process leading to the production of short-chain R-CoA species. They can be subsequently exported from mitochondria as short-chain carnitines (SC-CARs), utilized in anabolic pathways, or released from the cells. METHODS: We examined the specificities of BCAA catabolism and cellular adaptation strategies to BCAA starvation in PDAC cells in vitro. We used metabolomics and lipidomics to quantify major metabolic changes in response to BCAA withdrawal. Using confocal microscopy and flow cytometry we quantified the fluorescence of BODIPY probe and the level of lipid droplets (LDs). We used BODIPY-conjugated palmitate to evaluate transport of fatty acids (FAs) into mitochondria. Also, we have developed a protocol for quantification of SC-CARs, BCAA-derived metabolites. RESULTS: Using metabolic profiling, we found that BCAA starvation leads to massive triglyceride (TG) synthesis and LD accumulation. This was associated with the suppression of activated FA transport into the mitochondrial matrix. The suppression of FA import into mitochondria was rescued with the inhibitor of the acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) and the activator of AMP kinase (AMPK), which both regulate carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A (CPT1) activation status. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that BCAA catabolism is required for the import of long chain carnitines (LC-CARs) into mitochondria, whereas the disruption of this link results in the redirection of activated FAs into TG synthesis and its deposition into LDs. We propose that this mechanism protects cells against mitochondrial overload with LC-CARs and it might be part of the universal reaction to amino acid perturbations during cancer growth, regulating FA handling and storage.

The role of adipogenic capacity and dysfunctional subcutaneous adipose tissue in the inheritance of type 2 diabetes mellitus: cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: This study tested the hypothesis that limited subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) expansion represents a primary predisposition to the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), independent of obesity, and identified novel markers of SAT dysfunction in the inheritance of T2DM. METHODS: First-degree relatives (FDR) of T2DM patients (n = 19) and control individuals (n = 19) without obesity (fat mass < 25%) were cross-sectionally compared. Body composition (bioimpedance, computed tomography) and insulin sensitivity (IS; oral glucose tolerance test, clamp) were measured. SAT obtained by needle biopsy was used to analyze adipocyte size, lipidome, mRNA expression, and inflammatory markers. Primary cultures of adipose precursors were analyzed for adipogenic capacity and metabolism. RESULTS: Compared with control individuals, FDR individuals had lower IS and a higher amount of visceral fat. However, SAT-derived adipose precursors did not differ in their ability to proliferate and differentiate or in metabolic parameters (lipolysis, mitochondrial oxidation). In SAT of FDR individuals, lipidomic and mRNA expression analysis revealed accumulation of triglycerides containing polyunsaturated fatty acids and increased mRNA expression of lysyl oxidase (LOX). These parameters correlated with IS, visceral fat accumulation, and mRNA expression of inflammatory and cellular stress genes. CONCLUSIONS: The intrinsic adipogenic potential of SAT is not affected by a family history of T2DM. However, alterations in LOX mRNA and polyunsaturated fatty acids in triacylglycerols are likely related to the risk of developing T2DM independent of obesity.

Severe COVID-19 associated hyperglycemia is caused by beta cell dysfunction: a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: COVID-19, an infectious disease caused by SARS-CoV-2, was shown to be associated with an increased risk of new-onset diabetes. Mechanisms contributing to the development of hyperglycemia are still unclear. We aimed to study whether hyperglycemia is related to insulin resistance and/or beta cell dysfunction. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Survivors of severe COVID-19 but without a known history of diabetes were examined at baseline (T0) and after 3 (T3) and 6 (T6) months: corticosteroids use, indirect calorimetry, and OGTT. Insulin response and sensitivity (IS) were expressed as insulinogenic (IGI), disposition (DI), and Matsuda insulin sensitivity index (ISI). Resting energy expenditure (REE) and respiratory quotient (RQ) was calculated from the gas exchange and nitrogen losses. RESULTS: 26 patients (out of 37) with complete outcome data were included in the analysis (age ~59.0 years; BMI ~ 30.4, 35% women). Patients were hypermetabolic at T0 (30.3 ± 4.0 kcal/kg lean mass/day, ~120% predicted) but REE declined over 6 months (ΔT6-T0 mean dif. T6-T0 (95% CI): -5.4 (-6.8, -4.1) kcal/kg FFM/day, p < 0.0001). 17 patients at T0 and 13 patients at T6 had hyperglycemia. None of the patients had positive islet autoantibodies. Insulin sensitivity in T0 was similarly low in hyperglycemic (H) and normoglycemic patients (N) (T0 ISIH = 3.12 ± 1.23, ISIN = 3.47 ± 1.78, p = 0.44), whereas insulin response was lower in the H group (DIH = 3.05 ± 1.79 vs DIN = 8.40 ± 5.42, p = 0.003). Over 6 months ISI (ΔT6-T0 mean dif. T6-T0 for ISI (95% CI): 1.84 (0.45, 3.24), p = 0.01)) increased in the H group only. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with severe COVID-19 had increased REE and insulin resistance during the acute phase due to the infection and corticosteroid use, but these effects do not persist during the follow-up period. Only patients with insufficient insulin response developed hyperglycemia, indicating that beta cell dysfunction, rather than insulin resistance, was responsible for its occurrence.

Approaches to Measuring the Activity of Major Lipolytic and Lipogenic Enzymes In Vitro and Ex Vivo.

Since the 1950s, one of the goals of adipose tissue research has been to determine lipolytic and lipogenic activity as the primary metabolic pathways affecting adipocyte health and size and thus representing potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of obesity and associated diseases. Nowadays, there is a relatively large number of methods to measure the activity of these pathways and involved enzymes, but their applicability to different biological samples is variable. Here, we review the characteristics of mean lipogenic and lipolytic enzymes, their inhibitors, and available methodologies for assessing their activity, and comment on the advantages and disadvantages of these methodologies and their applicability in vivo, ex vivo, and in vitro, i.e., in cells, organs and their respective extracts, with the emphasis on adipocytes and adipose tissue.

Pancreatic cancer: branched-chain amino acids as putative key metabolic regulators?

Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids utilized in anabolic and catabolic metabolism. While extensively studied in obesity and diabetes, recent evidence suggests an important role for BCAA metabolism in cancer. Elevated plasma levels of BCAA are associated with an increased risk of developing pancreatic cancer, namely pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), a tumor with one of the highest 1-year mortality rates. The dreadful prognosis for PDAC patients could be attributable also to the early and frequent development of cancer cachexia, a fatal host metabolic reprogramming leading to muscle and adipose wasting. We propose that BCAA dysmetabolism is a unifying component of several pathological conditions, i.e., obesity, insulin resistance, and PDAC. These conditions are mutually dependent since PDAC ranks among cancers tightly associated with obesity and insulin resistance. It is also well-established that PDAC itself can trigger insulin resistance and new-onset diabetes. However, the exact link between BCAA metabolism, development of PDAC, and tissue wasting is still unclear. Although tissue-specific intracellular and systemic metabolism of BCAA is being intensively studied, unresolved questions related to PDAC and cancer cachexia remain, namely, whether elevated circulating BCAA contribute to PDAC etiology, what is the biological background of BCAA elevation, and what is the role of adipose tissue relative to BCAA metabolism during cancer cachexia. To cover those issues, we provide our view on BCAA metabolism at the intracellular, tissue, and whole-body level, with special emphasis on different metabolic links to BCAA intermediates and the role of insulin in substrate handling.

Lymphedema alters lipolytic, lipogenic, immune and angiogenic properties of adipose tissue: a hypothesis-generating study in breast cancer survivors.

Later stages of secondary lymphedema are associated with the massive deposition of adipose tissue (AT). The factors driving lymphedema-associated AT (LAT) expansion in humans remain rather elusive. We hypothesized that LAT expansion could be based on alterations of metabolic, adipogenic, immune and/or angiogenic qualities of AT. AT samples were acquired from upper limbs of 11 women with unilateral breast cancer-related lymphedema and 11 healthy women without lymphedema. Additional control group of 11 female breast cancer survivors without lymphedema was used to assess systemic effects of lymphedema. AT was analysed for adipocyte size, lipolysis, angiogenesis, secretion of cytokines, immune and stem cell content and mRNA gene expression. Further, adipose precursors were isolated and tested for their proliferative and adipogenic capacity. The effect of undrained LAT- derived fluid on adipogenesis was also examined. Lymphedema did not have apparent systemic effect on metabolism and cytokine levels, but it was linked with higher lymphocyte numbers and altered levels of several miRNAs in blood. LAT showed higher basal lipolysis, (lymph)angiogenic capacity and secretion of inflammatory cytokines when compared to healthy AT. LAT contained more activated CD4+ T lymphocytes than healthy AT. mRNA levels of (lymph)angiogenic markers were deregulated in LAT and correlated with markers of lipolysis. In vitro, adipose cells derived from LAT did not differ in their proliferative, adipogenic, lipogenic and lipolytic potential from cells derived from healthy AT. Nevertheless, exposition of preadipocytes to LAT-derived fluid improved their adipogenic conversion when compared with the effect of serum. This study presents results of first complex analysis of LAT from upper limb of breast cancer survivors. Identified LAT alterations indicate a possible link between (lymph)angiogenesis and lipolysis. In addition, our in vitro results imply that AT expansion in lymphedema could be driven partially by exposition of adipose precursors to undrained LAT-derived fluid.

Exercise Training Combined with Calanus Oil Supplementation Improves the Central Cardiodynamic Function in Older Women.

The aim of this study was to investigate the possible beneficial effects of exercise training (ET) with omega-3/Calanus oil supplementation on cardiorespiratory and adiposity parameters in elderly women. Fifty-five women (BMI: 19-37 kg/m2, 62-80 years old) were recruited and randomly assigned to the 4 month intervention with ET and omega-3 supplementation (Calanus oil, ET-Calanus) or ET and the placebo (sunflower oil; ET-Placebo). The body composition was determined by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), and cardiorespiratory parameters were measured using spiroergometry and PhysioFlow hemodynamic testing. Both interventions resulted in an increased lean mass whereas the fat mass was reduced in the leg and trunk as well as the android and gynoid regions. The content of trunk fat (in percent of the total fat) was lower and the content of the leg fat was higher in the ET-Calanus group compared with the ET-Placebo. Although both interventions resulted in similar improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness (VO2max), it was explained by an increased peripheral oxygen extraction (a-vO2diff) alone in the ET-Placebo group whereas increased values of both a-vO2diff and maximal cardiac output (COmax) were observed in the ET-Calanus group. Changes in COmax were associated with changes in systemic vascular resistance, circulating free fatty acids, and the omega-3 index. In conclusion, Calanus oil supplementation during a 4 month ET intervention in elderly women improved the cardiorespiratory function, which was due to combined central and peripheral cardiodynamic mechanisms.

Exercise Training Reduces Inflammation of Adipose Tissue in the Elderly: Cross-Sectional and Randomized Interventional Trial.

CONTEXT: Metabolic disturbances and a pro-inflammatory state associated with aging and obesity may be mitigated by physical activity or nutrition interventions. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to assess whether physical fitness/exercise training (ET) alleviates inflammation in adipose tissue (AT), particularly in combination with omega-3 supplementation, and whether changes in AT induced by ET can contribute to an improvement of insulin sensitivity and metabolic health in the elderly. DESIGN, PARTICIPANTS, MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The effect of physical fitness was determined in cross-sectional comparison of physically active/physically fit (trained) and sedentary/less physically fit (untrained) older women (71 ± 4 years, n = 48); and in double-blind randomized intervention by 4 months of ET with or without omega-3 (Calanus oil) supplementation (n = 55). Physical fitness was evaluated by spiroergometry (maximum graded exercise test) and senior fitness tests. Insulin sensitivity was measured by hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp. Samples of subcutaneous AT were used to analyze mRNA gene expression, cytokine secretion, and immune cell populations. RESULTS: Trained women had lower mRNA levels of inflammation and oxidative stress markers, lower relative content of CD36+ macrophages, and higher relative content of γδT-cells in AT when compared with untrained women. Similar effects were recapitulated in response to a 4-month ET intervention. Content of CD36+ cells, γδT-cells, and mRNA expression of several inflammatory and oxidative stress markers correlated to insulin sensitivity and cardiorespiratory fitness. CONCLUSIONS: In older women, physical fitness is associated with less inflammation in AT. This may contribute to beneficial metabolic outcomes achieved by ET. When combined with ET, omega-3 supplementation had no additional beneficial effects on AT inflammatory characteristics.

Childhood survivors of high-risk neuroblastoma show signs of immune recovery and not immunosenescence.

Neuroblastoma survivors show signs of immunosenescence early after therapy in CD8+ T cell compartment and elevated plasma TNF-α but in later follow-up immune recovery comes into play. Whether the recovery phenotype is long lasting or transient remains to be elucidated, however, late adverse effects often occur in childhood cancer survivors.

Lymphatic drainage affects lipolytic activity of femoral adipose tissue in women.

It has been shown that many molecules released by adipose tissue (AT) into interstitial fluid can reach the bloodstream preferentially via lymphatic system. Worsened lymphatic drainage may alter interstitial fluid (ISF) composition and thus affect microenvironment of adipocytes. Nevertheless, the effect of lymphatic drainage on AT functions remains unknown. Therefore, we analyzed the lipolytic activity of femoral AT in two groups of premenopausal women similar in adiposity but differing in the efficiency of lymphatic drainage of lower body as assessed by lymphoscintigraphy. Levels of lipolytic markers were assessed in plasma and ISF collected by skin blister technique in femoral area. In addition, microdialysis was used to monitor lipolysis of AT in vivo. Our results indicate that worsened lymphatic drainage is associated with lower in vivo lipolytic index and reduced lipolytic responsiveness of femoral AT to adrenergic stimuli. Thus, efficiency of lymphatic drainage appears to play a role in the regulation of AT metabolism. Accordingly, worsened lymphatic drainage could contribute to the resistance of lower body AT to intentional weigh loss.

Signs of Deregulated Gene Expression Are Present in Both CD14+ and CD14- PBMC From Non-Obese Men With Family History of T2DM.

Aim: Development of type 2 diabetes (T2DM) is associated with disturbances in immune and metabolic status that may be reflected by an altered gene expression profile of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). To reveal a potential family predisposition to these alterations, we investigated the regulation of gene expression profiles in circulating CD14+ and CD14- PBMC in fasting conditions and in response to oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) in glucose tolerant first-degree relatives (FDR) of T2DM patients and in control subjects. Materials and Methods: This work is based on the clinical study LIMEX (NCT03155412). Non-obese 12 non-diabetic (FDR), and 12 control men without family history of diabetes matched for age and BMI underwent OGTT. Blood samples taken before and at the end of OGTT were used for isolation of circulating CD14+ and CD14- PBMC. In these cells, mRNA levels of 94 genes related to lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, immunity, and inflammation were assessed by qPCR. Results: Irrespectively of the group, the majority of analyzed genes had different mRNA expression in CD14+ PBMC compared to CD14- PBMC in the basal (fasting) condition. Seven genes (IRS1, TLR2, TNFα in CD14+ PBMC; ABCA1, ACOX1, ATGL, IL6 in CD14- PBMC) had different expression in control vs. FDR groups. OGTT regulated mRNA levels of nine genes selectively in CD14+ PBMC and of two genes (ABCA1, PFKL) selectively in CD14-PBMC. Differences in OGTT-induced response between FDR and controls were observed for EGR2, CCL2 in CD14+ PBMC and for ABCA1, ACOX1, DGAT2, MLCYD, and PTGS2 in CD14- PBMC. Conclusion: This study revealed a different impact of glucose challenge on gene expression in CD14+ when compared with CD14- PBMC fractions and suggested possible impact of family predisposition to T2DM on basal and OGTT-induced gene expression in these PBMC fractions. Future studies on these putative alterations of inflammation and lipid metabolism in fractionated PBMC in larger groups of subjects are warranted.

Exercise training induces insulin-sensitizing PAHSAs in adipose tissue of elderly women.

Adverse effects of aging can be delayed with life-style interventions. We examined how exercise training (ET) alone or combined with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) affects serum and adipose tissue (AT) lipidome in older women. Fifty-five sedentary older women were included in the physical activity program and given either sunflower (Placebo) or wax esters-rich (Calanus) oil capsules for 4 months. Serum and subcutaneous abdominal AT samples were acquired while maximum rates of oxygen consumption (VO2 max), insulin sensitivity (hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamps) and comprehensive lipidome profiles were determined before and after the study. ET increased VO2 max in both groups. Lipidomics profiling revealed unusual serum triacylglycerols and phospholipids with ether-bound alkyls in the Calanus group, while ET generally induced shorter-chain triacylglycerols in AT, suggesting increased de novo lipogenesis. The latter was positively associated with whole-body insulin sensitivity. Unexpectedly, insulin-sensitizing lipokines from the family of branched palmitic acid esters of hydroxy stearic acid (PAHSAs) were elevated in both serum and AT after ET, while PAHSAs-containing triacylglycerols were detected in AT. ET stimulated beneficial changes in AT, including PAHSAs synthesis. Although the added value of omega-3 PUFA supplementation was not proven, our discovery can help understand the nature of the metabolic benefits of exercise.

Circulating Monocyte and Lymphocyte Populations in Healthy First-Degree Relatives of Type 2 Diabetic Patients at Fasting and during Short-Term Hyperinsulinemia.

AIM: The development of type 2 diabetes (T2DM) is associated with disturbances of immune status that may be reflected by alterations of the profile of circulating immune cells. In order to study whether there exists genetic predisposition to these alterations, we investigated the relative content of circulating monocyte and lymphocyte subpopulations at fasting condition and upon stimulation by short-term hyperinsulinemia in nondiabetic first-degree relatives (FDR) of T2DM patients and in control subjects. MATERIALS AND METHODS: 19 nondiabetic (FDR) and 19 control subjects without a family history of diabetes (all men) matched for age and BMI underwent 2-hour hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp. Blood samples taken before and at the end of the clamp were used for the flow cytometry analysis of lymphocyte and monocyte populations and for the assessment of cytokine levels. RESULTS: At fasting conditions, FDR showed a higher CD4/CD8 ratio of peripheral lymphocytes, a higher percentage of Th17 lymphocytes, and a lower content of intermediate monocytes when compared to controls. The CD4/CD8 ratio correlated with fat mass, insulin, and HOMA-IR in the entire group of subjects. Hyperinsulinemia decreased a relative content of peripheral CD4+ and increased a relative content of CD8+ T lymphocytes, thus decreasing the CD4/CD8 ratio by 18-22% in both groups of subjects. In FDR but not in controls, the decrease of CD4+ T lymphocyte content was partially based on the decrease of TH2 and TH17 lymphocyte subpopulations. In control subjects but not in FDR, the number of intermediate monocytes has declined in response to hyperinsulinemia. CONCLUSION: The alterations of the CD4/CD8 lymphocyte ratio, relative content of TH17 cells, and intermediate monocytes in FDR are features of genetic predisposition to T2DM and may play a role in pathogenesis of T2DM. Short-term hyperinsulinemia affected mostly the immune cell populations deregulated in FDR subjects, which suggests important interplay between immune system homeostasis and insulin levels.

Apolipoprotein M: a novel adipokine decreasing with obesity and upregulated by calorie restriction.

BACKGROUND: The adipose tissue (AT) is a secretory organ producing a wide variety of factors that participate in the genesis of metabolic disorders linked to excess fat mass. Weight loss improves obesity-related disorders. OBJECTIVES: Transcriptomic studies on human AT, and a combination of analyses of transcriptome and proteome profiling of conditioned media from adipocytes and stromal cells isolated from human AT, have led to the identification of apolipoprotein M (apoM) as a putative adipokine. We aimed to validate apoM as novel adipokine, investigate the relation of AT APOM expression with metabolic syndrome and insulin sensitivity, and study the regulation of its expression in AT and secretion during calorie restriction-induced weight loss. METHODS: We examined APOM mRNA level and secretion in AT from 485 individuals enrolled in 5 independent clinical trials, and in vitro in human multipotent adipose-derived stem cell adipocytes. APOM expression and secretion were measured during dieting. RESULTS: APOM was expressed in human subcutaneous and visceral AT, mainly by adipocytes. ApoM was released into circulation from AT, and plasma apoM concentrations correlate with AT APOM mRNA levels. In AT, APOM expression inversely correlated with adipocyte size, was lower in obese compared to lean individuals, and reduced in subjects with metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. Regardless of fat depot, there was a positive relation between AT APOM expression and systemic insulin sensitivity, independently of fat mass and plasma HDL cholesterol. In human multipotent adipose-derived stem cell adipocytes, APOM expression was enhanced by insulin-sensitizing peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor agonists and inhibited by tumor necrosis factor α, a cytokine that causes insulin resistance. In obese individuals, calorie restriction increased AT APOM expression and secretion. CONCLUSIONS: ApoM is a novel adipokine, the expression of which is a hallmark of healthy AT and is upregulated by calorie restriction. AT apoM deserves further investigation as a potential biomarker of risk for diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.

Expression of lipogenic markers is decreased in subcutaneous adipose tissue and adipocytes of older women and is negatively linked to GDF15 expression.

In aging, the capacity of subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) to store lipids decreases and this results in metabolically unfavorable fat redistribution. Triggers of this age-related SAT dysfunction may include cellular senescence or endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Therefore, we compared lipogenic capacity of SAT between young and older women and investigated its relation to senescence and ER stress markers. Samples of SAT and corresponding SAT-derived primary preadipocytes were obtained from two groups of women differing in age (36 vs. 72 years, n = 15 each) but matched for fat mass. mRNA levels of selected genes (lipogenesis: ACACA, FASN, SCD1, DGAT2, ELOVL6; senescence: p16, p21, NOX4, GDF15; ER stress-ATF4, XBP1s, PERK, HSPA5, GADD34, HYOU1, CHOP, EDEM1, DNAJC3) were assessed by qPCR, protein levels of GDF15 by ELISA, and mitochondrial function by the Seahorse Analyzer. Compared to the young, SAT and in vitro differentiated adipocytes from older women exhibited reduced mRNA expression of lipogenic enzymes. Out of analyzed senescence and ER stress markers, the only gene, whose expression correlated negatively with the expression of lipogenic enzymes in both SAT and adipocytes, was GDF15, a marker of not only senescence but also mitochondrial dysfunction. In line with this, inhibition of mitochondrial ATP synthase in adipocytes strongly upregulated GDF15 while reduced expression of lipogenic enzymes. Moreover, adipocytes from older women had a tendency for diminished mitochondrial capacity. Thus, a reduced lipogenic capacity of adipocytes in aged SAT appears to be linked to mitochondrial dysfunction rather than to ER stress or accumulation of senescent cells.

The Role of Inflammation in Age-Related Sarcopenia.

Many physiological changes occur with aging. These changes often, directly or indirectly, result in a deterioration of the quality of life and even in a shortening of life expectancy. Besides increased levels of reactive oxygen species, DNA damage and cell apoptosis, another important factor affecting the aging process involves a systemic chronic low-grade inflammation. This condition has already been shown to be interrelated with several (sub)clinical conditions, such as insulin resistance, atherosclerosis and Alzheimer's disease. Recent evidence, however, shows that chronic low-grade inflammation also contributes to the loss of muscle mass, strength and functionality, referred to as sarcopenia, as it affects both muscle protein breakdown and synthesis through several signaling pathways. Classic interventions to counteract age-related muscle wasting mainly focus on resistance training and/or protein supplementation to overcome the anabolic inflexibility from which elderly suffer. Although the elderly benefit from these classic interventions, the therapeutic potential of anti-inflammatory strategies is of great interest, as these might add up to/support the anabolic effect of resistance exercise and/or protein supplementation. In this review, the molecular interaction between inflammation, anabolic sensitivity and muscle protein metabolism in sarcopenic elderly will be addressed.

Comparison of Early (2 Days) and Later (28 Days) Response of Adipose Tissue to Very Low-Calorie Diet in Obese Women.

CONTEXT: Beneficial metabolic effects of calorie restriction found in the early stage of hypocalorie diets may be caused by the modulation of metabolic and endocrine function of adipose tissue. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to compare metabolic and inflammation-related characteristics of sc adipose tissue (SAAT) in the early (2 d) and later (28 d) phase of a very low calorie diet (VLCD). Design, Setting, Intervention, and Patients: Seventeen moderately obese premenopausal women followed an 800 kcal/d VLCD for 28 days. Anthropometric measurements, blood sampling, and a biopsy of SAAT were performed before the diet and after 2 and 28 days of the VLCD. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): mRNA expression of 50 genes related to lipid metabolism, inflammation, and fibrosis were analyzed in SAAT. Secretion of adipokines was determined in SAAT explants and adipokines, fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) and C-reactive protein were measured in plasma. RESULTS: In the early phase of the VLCD, the expression of lipolytic genes was increased, whereas the expression of lipogenic genes was significantly suppressed. The inflammatory markers in SAAT remained unchanged. At the later phase, expression of genes involved in lipogenesis and ß-oxidation was markedly suppressed, whereas the expression of inflammatory markers was increased. The changes of lipogenic genes after 28 days of the VLCD correlated with FGF21 changes. CONCLUSION: The early and later phases of a VLCD differ with respect to metabolic and inflammatory responses in SAAT. The expression changes in SAAT in the early phase of the VLCD could not explain the effect of short calorie restriction on the improvement of insulin sensitivity. An interplay of SAAT with liver function during VLCD mediated by FGF21 might be suggested.

Acute hyperlipidemia initiates proinflammatory and proatherogenic changes in circulation and adipose tissue in obese women.

BACKGROUND: Obesity represents a high risk factor for the development of atherosclerosis and is associated with a low-grade inflammation and activation of immune cells. AIMS: The aim of our study was to investigate the effect of a short-term lipid infusion on immune cells in blood and subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue (SAAT) in obese women. METHODS: Seven-hour intravenous lipid/control infusions were performed in two groups of women (n = 15, n = 10, respectively). Before and at the end of the infusion, SAAT and blood samples were obtained and relative content and phenotype of immune cells were analyzed using flow cytometry. Analysis of immune cell markers, inflammation and angiogenesis markers was performed in SAAT by RT-PCR and in plasma by immunoassays. RESULTS: Relative content of CD45+/14+ and CD45+/14+/16+ populations of monocytes was reduced in circulation by 21% (p = 0.004) and by 46% (p = 0.0002), respectively, in response to hyperlipidemia, which suggested the increased adhesion of these cells to endothelium. In line with this, the levels of sICAM and sVCAM in plasma were increased by 9.4% (p = 0.016), 11.8% (p = 0.008), respectively. In SAAT, the relative content of M2 monocyte/macrophages subpopulation CD45+/14+/206+/16+ decreased by 27% (p = 0.012) and subpopulations CD14+/CD206- and CD14/+TLR4+ cells increased (p = 0.026; p = 0.049, respectively). Intralipid infusion promoted an increase of mRNA levels in SAAT: RORC (marker of proinflammatory Th17 lymphocytes) by 43% (p = 0.048), MCP-1 (78%, p = 0.028) and VEGF (68.5%, p = 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Acute hyperlipidemia induces a proinflammatory and proatherogenic response associated with altered relative content of immune cells in blood and SAAT in obese women.

Experimental hyperglycemia induces an increase of monocyte and T-lymphocyte content in adipose tissue of healthy obese women.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Hyperglycemia represents one of possible mediators for activation of immune system and may contribute to worsening of inflammatory state associated with obesity. The aim of our study was to investigate the effect of a short-term hyperglycemia (HG) on the phenotype and relative content of immune cells in circulation and subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue (SAAT) in obese women without metabolic complications. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Three hour HG clamp with infusion of octreotide and control investigations with infusion of octreotide or saline were performed in three groups of obese women (Group1: HG, Group 2: Octreotide, Group 3: Saline, n=10 per group). Before and at the end of the interventions, samples of SAAT and blood were obtained. The relative content of immune cells in blood and SAAT was determined by flow cytometry. Gene expression analysis of immunity-related markers in SAAT was performed by quantitative real-time PCR. RESULTS: In blood, no changes in analysed immune cell population were observed in response to HG. In SAAT, HG induced an increase in the content of CD206 negative monocytes/macrophages (p<0.05) and T lymphocytes (both T helper and T cytotoxic lymphocytes, p<0.01). Further, HG promoted an increase of mRNA levels of immune response markers (CCL2, TLR4, TNFα) and lymphocyte markers (CD3g, CD4, CD8a, TBX21, GATA3, FoxP3) in SAAT (p<0.05 and 0.01). Under both control infusions, none of these changes were observed. CONCLUSIONS: Acute HG significantly increased the content of monocytes and lymphocytes in SAAT of healthy obese women. This result suggests that the short-term HG can modulate an immune status of AT in obese subjects.

Stress of endoplasmic reticulum modulates differentiation and lipogenesis of human adipocytes.

BACKGROUND: Adipocytes are cells specialized for storage of neutral lipids. This storage capacity is dependent on lipogenesis and is diminished in obesity. The reason for the decline in lipogenic activity of adipocytes in obesity remains unknown. Recent data show that lipogenesis in liver is regulated by pathways initiated by endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS). Thus, we aimed at investigating the effect of ERS on lipogenesis in adipose cells. METHODS: Preadipocytes were isolated from subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue from obese volunteers and in vitro differentiated into adipocytes. ERS was induced pharmacologically by thapsigargin (TG) or tunicamycin (TM). Activation of Unfolded Protein Response pathway (UPR) was monitored on the level of eIF2α phosphorylation and mRNA expression of downstream targets of UPR sensors. Adipogenic and lipogenic capacity was evaluated by Oil Red O staining, measurement of incorporation of radio-labelled glucose or acetic acid into lipids and mRNA analysis of adipogenic/lipogenic markers. RESULTS: Exposition of adipocytes to high doses of TG (100 nM) and TM (1 µg/ml) for 1-24 h enhanced expression of several UPR markers (HSPA5, EDEM1, ATF4, XBP1s) and phosphorylation of eIF2α. This acute ERS substantially inhibited expression of lipogenic genes (DGAT2, FASN, SCD1) and glucose incorporation into lipids. Moreover, chronic exposure of preadipocytes to low dose of TG (2.5 nM) during the early phases of adipogenic conversion of preadipocytes impaired both, lipogenesis and adipogenesis. On the other hand, chronic low ERS had no apparent effect on lipogenesis in mature adipocytes. CONCLUSIONS: Acute ERS weakened a capacity of mature adipocytes to store lipids and chronic ERS diminished adipogenic potential of preadipocytes.